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Professor Sharon DeWitte, Biological Anthropologist, University of Colorado said: “Not only does this research add to our knowledge about the biosocial factors that affected risks of mortality during medieval plague epidemics, it also shows that there is a deep history of social marginalization shaping health and vulnerability to disease in human populations.” By autumn 1347, plague had reached Alexandria in Egypt, transmitted by sea from Constantinople via a single merchant ship carrying slaves. [108] By late summer 1348 it reached Cairo, capital of the Mamluk Sultanate, cultural center of the Islamic world, and the largest city in the Mediterranean Basin; the Bahriyya child sultan an-Nasir Hasan fled and more than a third of the 600,000 residents died. [109] The Nile was choked with corpses despite Cairo having a medieval hospital, the late 13th century bimaristan of the Qalawun complex. [109] The historian al-Maqrizi described the abundant work for grave-diggers and practitioners of funeral rites; plague recurred in Cairo more than fifty times over the following one and a half centuries. [109] Maps and Statistics: Plague in the United States". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 25 November 2019. Archived from the original on 8 April 2020 . Retrieved 8 April 2020.

The research, which looked at data on bone and dental changes, is based on 145 individuals from three cemeteries: East Smithfield emergency plague cemetery, St Mary Graces and St Mary Spital. They know that the bacillus travels from person to person through the air, as well as through the bite of infected fleas and rats. Both of these pests could be found almost everywhere in medieval Europe, but they were particularly at home aboard ships of all kinds—which is how the deadly plague made its way through one European port city after another. By this logic, the only way to overcome the plague was to win God’s forgiveness. Some people believed that the way to do this was to purge their communities of heretics and other troublemakers—so, for example, many thousands of Jews were massacred in 1348 and 1349. (Thousands more fled to the sparsely populated regions of Eastern Europe, where they could be relatively safe from the rampaging mobs in the cities.) Kraut AM (1995). Silent travelers: germs, genes, and the "immigrant menace". Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-5096-7.The plague hits Marseille, Paris and Normandy, and then the strain splits, with one strain moving onto the now-Belgian city of Tournai to the east and the other passing through Calais. and Avignon, where 50 percent of the population dies. Karlsson G (2000). Iceland's 1100 years: the history of a marginal society. London: C. Hurst. p.111. ISBN 978-1-85065-420-9. Bramanti B, Stenseth NC, Walløe L, Lei X (2016). "Plague: A Disease Which Changed the Path of Human Civilization". Yersinia pestis: Retrospective and Perspective. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. Vol.918. pp.1–26. doi: 10.1007/978-94-024-0890-4_1. ISBN 978-94-024-0888-1. PMID 27722858. Andrades Valtueña A, Mittnik A, Key FM, Haak W, Allmäe R, Belinskij A, etal. (December 2017). "The Stone Age Plague and Its Persistence in Eurasia". Current Biology. 27 (23): 3683–3691.e8. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2017.10.025. PMID 29174893. Drancourt M, Aboudharam G, Signoli M, Dutour O, Raoult D (October 1998). "Detection of 400-year-old Yersinia pestis DNA in human dental pulp: an approach to the diagnosis of ancient septicemia". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 95 (21): 12637–12640. Bibcode: 1998PNAS...9512637D. doi: 10.1073/pnas.95.21.12637. PMC 22883. PMID 9770538.

Rasmussen S, Allentoft ME, Nielsen K, Orlando L, Sikora M, Sjögren KG, etal. (October 2015). "Early divergent strains of Yersinia pestis in Eurasia 5,000 years ago". Cell. 163 (3): 571–582. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2015.10.009. PMC 4644222. PMID 26496604. Arrizabalaga J (2010). "Plague and epidemics". In Bjork RE (ed.). The Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-866262-4. Archived from the original on 21 October 2014 . Retrieved 1 February 2022. The Leaky Cauldron and MN Interview Joanne Kathleen Rowling – Part 2". The Leaky Cauldron. 28 July 2007 . Retrieved 9 February 2022. Centers for Disease Control (CDC) (24 September 2015). "FAQ: Plague". Archived from the original on 30 March 2019 . Retrieved 24 April 2017.Today, this grim sequence of events is terrifying but comprehensible. In the middle of the 14th century, however, there seemed to be no rational explanation for it. The study, published by Bioarchaeology International, was undertaken by Dr Rebecca Redfern (Senior Curator of Archaeology, Museum of London), Professor Sharon DeWitte (Biological Anthropologist, University of Colorado), Dr Joseph Hefner (Associate Professor of Anthropology, Michigan State University), and Dr Dorothy Kim (Assistant Professor of English, Brandeis University). It is the first archaeological exploration showing how racism influenced a person’s risk of death during the Great Pestilence and will inform galleries at the museum’s new home in Smithfield, opening in 2026. Padma, T.V. (23 March 2007). "Drug-resistant plague a 'major threat', say scientists". SciDev.net. Archived from the original on 19 July 2012. Hays JN (2005). Epidemics and pandemics: their impacts on human history. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 1-85109-658-2.